Ancient History (Part-I)

Ashoka’s Pillar Stones

• The sources of pillar stones used in Mauryan architecture reveal various materials and their origins.
• Ashoka’s pillar had the spotted and white sandstone, known for its durability and fine texture, was sourced from Mathura.
• In contrast, buff-coloured sandstone and quartzite were procured from Amaravati, contributing to the distinctive appearance of Ashoka’s pillars.
• Additionally, some of Ashoka’s pillars were made from a combination of locally available stones and imported materials, reflecting the empire’s advanced knowledge in quarrying and stonework.
• The Ashoka’s pillar stones highlight the technical prowess of Mauryan builders and emphasise the extensive trade networks that supported their construction projects.

Brahmi Script

• Brahmi is the ancestor of the Brahmic family of scripts, which includes all Indian scripts, viz. Devanagari, Odia, Gujarati, Tamil, Telugu etc. and also ancient scripts in Sri Lanka, Burma, and south-east Asian countries: Java, Sumatra, Cambodia.
• Present alphabets of Burma, Thailand, Indonesia, Laos, Cambodia are derived from Brahmi.
• The Ashokan inscriptions dating to the third century BCE used the Brahmi script, the earliest evidence of the use of Brahmi.
• Most Asokan inscriptions were in the Prakrit language, while those in the northwest of the subcontinent were in Aramaic and Greek.
• Most Prakrit inscriptions were written in the Brahmi script; however, some, in the northwest, were written in Kharosthi.
• It was only after decades of painstaking investigations by several epigraphists that James Prinsep was able to decipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838.

Milinda Panha

• Milinda-panha is a spirited conversation on Buddhist philosophy in which King Milinda—i.e Menander, Greek king of a huge Indo-Greek empire in the late 2nd century BCE—poses questions and difficulties that are answered by Nagasena, a senior monk.
• The first section of the book is thought to have been composed between 100 BC and 200 AD. The text might have been written in Sanskrit at first.
• Based on an existing Chinese translation of Mil and certain unique conceptualizations within the book, the original language of the work might have been Gandhari.
• Other than the Sri Lankan Pali edition and derivatives, no other copies are known.
• The Pali text’s earliest manuscript was copied in 1495 AD. Significant chunks of the book have been lost due to allusions within the text, making Milinda the only Pali text known to have been transmitted down as unfinished.
• It is recorded in the Grande Inscription d'Angkor, which was etched on the walls of Angkor Wat in Cambodia in 1701.

• Ashoka’s inscriptions, carved on rocks and pillars across the Indian subcontinent, are among the oldest deciphered writings in India.
• These inscriptions, written in languages like Prakrit, Greek, and Aramaic, reflect Ashoka’s commitment to spreading the principles of dharma, which emphasised non-violence, moral conduct, and religious tolerance.
• They also highlight his efforts to improve the welfare of his subjects by promoting social harmony, ethical governance, and animal welfare.
• Ashoka’s inscriptions serve as a valuable historical source, offering insights into Ashoka’s reign and his transformative approach to leadership after the Kalinga War.

Vatsa with its capital at Kausambi was another powerful Mahajanapada, annexed by Magadha. Anga Mahajanapada was in Gangetic valley.

• Chandragupta II was a patron of art and literature. Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the veena, and Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining nine luminaries or great scholars in his court.
  Gupta's Coins
• In ancient India, art was mainly inspired by religion. Few survivors of non-religious art from ancient India exist. Buddhism gave great impetus to art in the Mauryan and post-Mauryan periods.
• It led to the creation of massive stone pillars, the cutting of beautiful caves and the raising of high stupas or relic towers.
• The stupas appeared as dome-like structures on round bases mainly of stone—numerous images of the Buddha.

Vishakhadatta

• Vishakhadatta was a great Gupta-era Sanskrit poet and playwright.
• After Mahakavi Kalidas, Vishakhadatta was a well-known Sanskrit poet and playwright.
• He flourished during or after the 6th century.
• In his great historical drama Mudrarakshasa, which is his only surviving work, he mentions his father's name as Maharaja Bhaskar Dutta.
• Apart from that, Vishakhadatta also wrote ‘Devichandraguptam’, which is only found in fragments in Ramachandra and Gunachandra's Natya Darpan.
• It also survived in the form of quotations in Sagarannidi's Nataka Lakshana Ratnakosha and King Bhoj's Shringar Prakash and Saraswati Kanthabharana.
• Vishakhadatta was different from other playwrights.
• When compared to both Kalidasa and Banabhatta in philosophical learning, his simple passages have a profound impact on readers.
• He wrote two powerful plays in Sanskrit with beautiful language.

The guilds in ancient India were highly diverse, reflecting the range of professions and trades that flourished in society. Broadly, they can be divided into the following categories:

• Merchant Guilds: These were the most influential, comprising traders engaged in both inland and overseas commerce. Merchant guilds such as the Shrenis of the Deccan or the South Indian guild Manigramam regulated long-distance trade, established trade networks across Asia, ensured safe passage of caravans, and negotiated privileges with rulers. They controlled marketplaces, enforced quality, and had the financial clout to donate to temples or fund urban development.
• Craft Guilds: These were organised around particular trades like weaving, metalworking, carpentry, pottery, ivory carving, or jewellery-making. They set strict production standards, trained apprentices, and protected craft secrets. The rise of Indian textiles, metallurgy, and fine arts owes much to the organisational strength of these guilds, which promoted both skill and innovations.
• Professional Guilds: These included groups of scholars, physicians, teachers, and other professionals bound by common ethical standards. They helped regulate intellectual and service-based professions, creating a sense of accountability and prestige. For example, physician guilds maintained codes of conduct and training, while scholarly guilds supported the transmission of learning.
• Regional and Religious Guilds: In addition to occupational divisions, some guilds were regionally based, protecting the interests of traders or craftsmen in a particular locality. Many were also religiously oriented, patronising temples and monasteries, which in turn reinforced their social prestige and moral authority.