Lithosphere (country, mountain, plateau) (Part-1)

Mountain ranges are created by the collision of convergent plate boundaries.

When two tectonic plates collide at a convergent boundary, one plate may be forced beneath the other in a process called subduction, or the plates may buckle and fold to form mountains.

A classic example of this process is the formation of the Himalayas due to the collision of the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate.

Most of Earth's continental crust includes igneous rocks such as granite, diorite, and granodiorite. Feldspars are also important constituents of gabbro and basalt, the primary rock types in Earth's oceanic crust.

Amphiboles are a significant group of hydrous minerals in various rock types.

Zeolites are microporous, three-dimensional crys talline solids of aluminium silicate.

Pyroxenes are the most significant and abundant group of rock-forming ferromagnesian silicates

The Gondwanaland included

• India,
• Australia,
• South Africa,
• and South America as one single landmass.

Some common features of karst plains include:

1. Sinkholes – Depressions or holes in the ground that form when a cave ceiling collapses or when the underlying rock dissolves.

2. Caves and Grottos – Underground cavities or tunnels that form due to the dissolving action of water.

3. Stalagmites and Stalactites – Mineral formations found in caves that form when dripping water deposits minerals.

4. Limestone Pavements – Flat, exposed areas of limestone that have been eroded into patterns of deep cracks called "grykes" and smooth surfaces.

5. Uvalas – Large depressions or basins that result from the merging of smaller sinkholes.

Karst plains are often found in areas with extensive limestone or other soluble rocks, such as parts of China (Karst mountains), the Balkans, and parts of the United States (e.g., the Appalachian region).