NTA UGC NET/JRF Exam AUGUST-2024 ARCHAEOLOGY

The chronological order of these wares begins with Faiz Mohammad Grey Ware, which belongs to the early Iron Age and predates the Painted Grey Ware (PGW), commonly associated with the later Vedic period. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) follows, representing the Mauryan and post-Mauryan periods, while Torpedo ware appears later in historical contexts, particularly linked to trade and maritime activities in later periods.

The site of Nal is one of the earliest among these, belonging to the Pre-Harappan phase. Sothi follows, being associated with the Sothi-Siswal culture, which is an early form of Harappan civilization. Kot Diji represents an advanced phase of early Harappan culture, leading up to the full-fledged Indus Valley Civilization. Amri, though also early, shows a more developed phase, bringing it to the later part of this sequence.

The Sanchi relic caskets are among the earliest, dating to the Mauryan period. Piparwah follows, as an ancient site connected to Buddhist relics. Vaishali is associated with later Buddhist relic deposits, and Devnimori, from the Gupta period, represents the most recent discovery in this sequence of relic caskets.

Ayodhya is one of the earliest sites, associated with early historic urban settlements. Nasik follows, with evidence of Satavahana rule. Rangmahal represents later developments in early historic settlement patterns. Devnimori, a Gupta-period site, is the most recent among them.

The sequence follows the earliest Paleolithic sites like Didwana, through Mesolithic sites such as Sarai Nahar Rai, to Indus Valley Civilization sites like Lothal, then to the early historic Iron Age settlements such as Atranjikhera, and finally to later megalithic cultures as seen in Brahmagiri and Naikund.

The earliest tools were choppers, handaxes, and cleavers, which belong to the Lower Paleolithic period. Later, biface tools and Levallois techniques emerged, followed by scrapers and denticulates in the Middle Paleolithic. The Upper Paleolithic saw the development of flake blades and trapezoidal tools, while polished axes and adzes were introduced in the Neolithic, marking the transition to agriculture and settled life.

The Period of Antiquarianism (16th-18th century) focused on collecting ancient objects without systematic study. The Speculative Period (18th-19th century) introduced early theories about human history. The Processual movement, starting in the mid-20th century, emphasized scientific methodology and environmental factors in archaeology. The Post-Processual approach, emerging in the late 20th century, introduced critical and interpretative perspectives, considering human agency, ideology, and cultural context.

The Bengal Regulation XIX (1810) and Madras Regulation VII (1817) were early laws addressing monument protection. The Indian Treasure Trove Act (1878) dealt with antiquities found underground. The Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904) provided state control over monuments, while the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites & Remains Act (1958) modernized heritage conservation in India.

Rishabhanath is considered the first Tirthankara of Jainism. Suparshvanath, the seventh Tirthankara, comes next, followed by Parshvanath, the 23rd Tirthankara, who lived around the 9th century BCE. Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara, lived in the 6th century BCE, reforming Jain teachings and spreading its influence.