NTA UGC NET/JRF Exam AUGUST-2024 ARCHAEOLOGY

The Chennakesava Temple at Belur (1117 CE) was the earliest among these, built by King Vishnuvardhana. The Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu (c. 1121 CE) followed, showcasing intricate sculptures. The Mallikarjuna Temple at Basaralu (1234 CE) came next, while the Keshav Temple at Somnathpur (1268 CE) was one of the last major Hoysala temples, representing the peak of their architectural style.

The chronological order of Vishnu's incarnations begins with Matsya (fish), the first avatar, followed by Varaha (boar), Narasimha (half-lion, half-man), and Vamana (dwarf Brahmin). Parashurama, the warrior Brahmin, appears later, marking the transition towards human avatars in Vishnu's divine interventions.

The Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I (150 CE) is one of the earliest and marks a significant Sanskrit inscription. The Gunda stone inscription follows, mentioning Rudrasimha I. Jivadaman's silver coin inscription comes next, followed by Garha stone inscription of Rudrasena I and the Kanakhera stone inscription of Sridharavarman, representing the later phase of Saka rule.

The Allahabad Stone Inscription (4th century CE) belongs to Samudragupta, detailing his conquests. Chandragupta II's Mathura Pillar Inscription follows, along with the Udayagiri cave inscription. Kumaragupta I's Bilsad Inscription (5th century CE) is later, while the Kahaum Stone Inscription of Skandagupta belongs to the late Gupta period, marking the empire's transition.

The three major archaeological mounds of Taxila are Bhir Mound, Sirkap, and Sirsukh, representing different phases of settlement. Bhir Mound (6th-2nd century BCE) is the earliest, associated with Achaemenid and early Mauryan rule. Sirkap (2nd century BCE-1st century CE) was built by the Indo-Greeks and later occupied by the Kushanas. Sirsukh (1st-5th century CE) represents the latest phase of Taxila, built during the Kushana period with more structured city planning.

Ashoka's Minor Rock Edicts are found at several locations, including Nellur (Andhra Pradesh), Rupnath (Madhya Pradesh), and Bhabru (Rajasthan). These edicts provide insights into Ashoka's personal devotion to Buddhism and his efforts to spread Dhamma across his empire. The Bhabru Edict is particularly significant as it mentions Ashoka's own reverence for certain Buddhist texts, reflecting his deep commitment to the faith.

The Pala Dynasty (8th-12th century CE) circulated billon coins, a metal alloy primarily composed of copper with a small proportion of silver. These coins were issued by several Pala rulers and typically bore inscriptions in Sanskrit and Prakrit, along with religious symbols, including Buddhist motifs. The use of billon was a common practice in medieval India to maintain a stable economy while preserving silver reserves.

Several early historic sites in India, including Mathura, Kotasur, and Atranjikhera, show evidence of mud fortifications. These fortifications, constructed using mud bricks, served as defensive structures for settlements during the Chalcolithic and Early Historic periods. Atranjikhera, in particular, reveals well-planned mud-brick structures and fortifications dating back to the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture, indicating early urban development and defense mechanisms.

The most significant range of OchreColoured Pottery (OCP) is reported from Saipai and Atranjikhera. OCP is associated with early agricultural communities in the Indo-Gangetic plain, particularly during the late Harappan and early Vedic periods. Excavations at Atranjikhera (Uttar Pradesh) have yielded a substantial number of OCP artifacts, indicating a transition from the Harappan to the later Vedic culture. Saipai, another significant site, has also contributed to understanding the distribution and chronology of OCP in northern India.