NTA UGC NET/JRF Exam February-2023 ARCHAEOLOGY

The legend 'Basileos' on Indo-Greek coins translates to "King" in English. The term has its roots in ancient Greek. When the Greeks established their rule in parts of northern and northwestern India after the conquests of Alexander the Great, they started issuing coins with bilingual inscriptions, in both Greek and Kharoshthi scripts. The word "Basileos" in Greek is analogous to "Maharaja" in the Indian context. The term "Maharaja" essentially means "great king" in Sanskrit. So, when interpreting the coins, "Basileos" was used by the Greek-speaking population while "Maharaja" catered to the local Indian populace.

The Makaravahini Ganga is depicted on the 'Tiger-slayer' type of coins issued by Samudragupta. Samudragupta, a prominent ruler of the Gupta Dynasty, issued a variety of gold coins that portrayed various facets of his life and achievements. The 'Tiger-slayer' type coin depicts the king holding a bow in one hand while piercing a tiger with the other.
The reverse side of the coin typically has the goddess Ganga seated on a crocodile, which is referred to as Makaravahini (crocodile-riding) Ganga. This imagery signifies the purity and sacredness of the Ganges River.

Copper tablets with the leaf-clad 'Hunter' bearing a bow and arrow are discovered from the site of Balu in Haryana. These tablets showcase a depiction of a hunter with distinct Indus Valley Civilisation motifs. The presence of such tablets adds to the extensive list of artefacts and symbols discovered from various Harappan and post-Harappan sites. This signifies the cultural and ritualistic importance these symbols might have held in ancient societies.

The archaeological site of Balu in Haryana has provided evidence of date and garlic. Excavations and findings from this site have greatly contributed to our understanding of the food habits and agricultural practices of the Harappan people. Discovering remnants of date and garlic gives insights into their diet and the variety of crops they cultivated, signifying an advanced agrarian society with diverse dietary practices.

The terms 'Sorath Harappan' and 'Anarta Harappan' are associated with the Harappan regional area of Gujarat. These terms essentially denote the regional variations or sub-cultures within the broader Harappan civilization that existed in the state of Gujarat. Harappan sites in Gujarat have shown evidence of distinct regional characteristics in their pottery, seals, and other artefacts. The terminology underscores the immense diversity and complexity within the Harappan Civilization and highlights the localized adaptations and innovations that happened over time.

Juni Karan is the site located on the Khavada island of the Rann of Kutch. Khavada is an important archaeological site, providing evidence of the Harappan culture's maritime activities and its connection to the hinterlands. The presence of a fortified settlement suggests it might have been a prominent trade or strategic location. Given its proximity to the sea, the site provides insights into the maritime activities and trade relations of the Harappan civilization. It is evidence of the wide spread and varied nature of the Indus Valley Civilization settlements, proving that they weren't just limited to the Indus river basin.

The distinctive Chalcolithic culture of Maharashtra is known as the Jorwe culture. It dates back to around 1400 BCE to 700 ВСЕ and is named after the village of Jorwe in Maharashtra where its first evidence was discovered. The Jorwe culture is characterized by its red pottery with black designs, typically painted pots and bowls. The findings at these sites also give a peek into the sociocultural and economic practices of the people, revealing a predominantly agrarian society.

The period Vth at Daimabad is associated with the Jorwe culture. Daimabad, located in Maharashtra, is one of the most significant archaeological sites in the Deccan region and has yielded evidence from various phases of prehistoric and early historic periods. The sequence of cultures at Daimabad includes the Early Harappan, Middle Chalcolithic, Late Chalcolithic (Jorwe culture), and the early historical period. The Jorwe culture findings in Daimabad have further enhanced our understanding of the spread and influence of this particular culture in the Deccan region.

Shereen Ratnagar has stated that the Harappan religion had a Shamanistic component. Ratnagar is known for her indepth studies on the Indus Valley Civilization. Her analysis of the Harappan artifacts, seals, and figurines led her to suggest that Shamanism, which involves the practice of reaching altered states of consciousness to interact with the spirit world, might have been a component of the Harappan religious practices. This sheds light on the spiritual and ritualistic practices of the Harappans, suggesting a complex and multifaceted religious system.

Mahendravarman-I is credited with the initiation of rock-cut architecture in South India. He ruled the Pallava kingdom during the 6th century AD and laid the foundation for the rock-cut temples of the Pallavas. Mahendravarman-I's contributions were significant in art and architecture, particularly the cave temples in places like Mamallapuram and Trichy.
These temples are a blend of indigenous artistic styles with influences from other regions, representing the zenith of South Indian rock-cut architecture and serve as a testament to the architectural prowess of the Pallava dynasty.