NTA UGC NET/JRF Exam February-2023 ARCHAEOLOGY

Odisha has a rich history of temple architecture. Parashurameswara temple (a) is one of the oldest temples in Bhubaneswar and is an epitome of early Kalinga architecture. It is from the late 7th century CE. Mukteshwara temple (c), built around the 10th century CE, is considered the gem of Kalinga architecture, with exquisite carvings and architecture. Raja Rani temple (b) doesn't have any presiding deity but is known for its architectural brilliance. It dates to the 11th century CE. Finally, Jagannath temple (d) in Puri, constructed in the 12th century CE, is one of the Char Dhams for Hindus.

In terms of geographical location from north to south: Ladakh (c) is the northernmost, known for its cold desert landscapes. Chichali (b) is a palaeolithic site located in Maharashtra. Nevasa (a), located in Maharashtra, is famous for its multi-cultural archaeological remains. Lastly, Inamgaon (d) is a post-Harappan archaeological site also in Maharashtra but further south than Nevasa.

These are rock-cut Buddhist monuments in the western region of India. Bhaja (a) is one of the earliest, dating back to the 2nd century BCE. It is famous for its viharas and stupas. Pitalkhora (d), with its rock-cut caves, dates back to the 2nd century BCE and showcases the evolution of rock-cut architecture. Bedsa (c), with its intricately carved chaitya, belongs to the Satavahana period of the 1st century BCE to 1st century CE. Karle (b), dating back to the 1st century CE, is renowned for its grand chaitya hall.

In terms of geographical location from east to west: Daojali Hading (b) in Assam is an ancient Neolithic site, indicative of early human civilization and its eastward movement. Senuar (a) in Bihar showcases the remnants of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures. Maner (c), also in Bihar, is an important archaeological site with historical and architectural significance. Balathal (d) in Rajasthan, known for its archaeological discoveries, gives insight into the Chalcolithic era and the Ahar-Banas culture.

While the trade routes in the early medieval Indian context did not significantly change, this observation is not solely based on the routes linking the Ganga plain with the Deccan. Several other factors contribute to this conclusion. The stability of trade routes can be attributed to the established infrastructure, local economies relying on those routes, and geopolitical stability in certain regions. While the Ganga-Deccan route is a significant example, other routes across the Indian subcontinent also remained consistent during this period. Additionally, the socio-political environment and external trade connections with regions such as Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East played a role in maintaining the consistency of these routes.

During the rule of the Bhaumakaras in Odisha, several magnificent Hindu temples were constructed. The Bhaumakaras, who ruled Odisha from the 8th to the 10th centuries CE, were significant patrons of art and architecture. Temples like the Brahmeswara and the Vaital Deul were built during their reign. This indicates that they did not solely patronize Buddhism, as they also provided significant support to Hinduism, making Statement II incorrect. The cultural milieu of Odisha during the Bhaumakaras rule was diverse, embracing multiple religious and philosophical traditions.

The term 'neolithic-chalcolithic' was indeed used to denote the first stage of village growth in non-Harappan India. The Neolithic period represents the last phase of the Stone Age and is characterized by the beginning of farming and sedentary life. Chalcolithic is the subsequent phase where both stone and metal (specifically copper) tools were used.
This term, 'neolithic-chalcolithic', was used as a general descriptor for various regional cultures in India before the advent of iron. These regional cultures, with their distinctive pottery, tools, and lifestyles, were the precursors to the Iron Age cultures, which eventually paved the way for more complex civilizations.

Punch-marked coins, primarily of silver and copper, were one of the earliest forms of coinage in India. These coins often had irregular shapes. The coins were made by cutting them out from a sheet of metal, which led to their irregular forms. The term 'punchmarked' comes from the symbols that were punched onto the coins, each symbol possibly representing a guild or a merchant group. To achieve the desired weight for these coins, corners or bits of metal were cut off, which further contributed to their irregular shapes. This practice shows the early method of ensuring the standard weight of the coin, crucial for its acceptability in trade.

Ancient Indian inscriptions, particularly up to the Gupta period, are largely donative records. These records provide invaluable information about donations made by individuals, royalties, and merchants. Many of these inscriptions were related to religious activities, especially Buddhism.
This can be ascertained from the number of inscriptions found at Buddhist sites detailing the construction of stupas, commissioning of Buddhist images, and upkeep of rock-cut monastic complexes. These donations were made as acts of religious merit, often aimed at acquiring spiritual benefits or commemorating deceased relatives. Such donative inscriptions become significant historical sources, shedding light on the socio-religious milieu of ancient India and the importance of religious patronage in shaping cultural landscapes.