Rock and Topography

• Batholith forms when magma rises into the earth's crust.
• Batholith formed under the Earth's surface by the intrusion and solidification of magma.
• It does not erupt onto the surface.
• It is commonly composed of rocks like granite or granodiorite.

Metamorphic Rock (Brief Overview):

• Formation: Formed from existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic) due to heat, pressure, and chemical changes deep within the Earth.

• Types:

  • Regional Metamorphism: Large-scale, caused by tectonic forces.

  • Contact Metamorphism: Caused by heat from nearby magma.

  • Hydrothermal Metamorphism: Changes due to mineral-rich fluids.

• Textures:

  • Foliated: Layers (e.g., slate, schist).

  • Non-foliated: No layers (e.g., marble, quartzite).

• Examples: Slate, schist, gneiss, marble, quartzite.

• Uses: Construction, sculpture, flooring, etc.

• Importance: Helps in studying Earth's crust, plate tectonics, and geological history.

Characteristics:

• Red or yellow color due to iron and aluminum oxide content.

• Rich in iron and aluminum but low in nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

• Well-drained but highly acidic.

Uses:

• Building material: Used for making bricks in construction.

• Agriculture: Suitable for crops like tea, coffee, and rubber when managed well.

When glacial ice melts, different types of rock are laid down that have been carried along by the glacier. Piles of these deposits are called Moraines.

• Characteristics:

  • Composed of rock fragments, soil, and boulders carried by glaciers.

  • Can vary in size from small mounds to large ridges.

• Examples: Found in mountain ranges and polar regions where glaciers have existed or currently exist (e.g., the Alps, Rocky Mountains, Himalayas).

GLACIAL LANDFORMS:

Definition: A gorge is a deep, narrow valley with steep, rocky sides, typically formed by the erosion of rock by rivers or glaciers.

• Formation:

  • Rivers: Most gorges are formed by the erosive power of rivers cutting through rock over time.

  • Glaciers: Some gorges are formed by glacial movements, which carve valleys through rock.

• Types of Gorges:

  • River Gorges: Formed by rivers (e.g., Grand Canyon, Kali Gandaki Gorge).

  • Glacial Gorges: Created by glacial movement (e.g., Fish River Canyon in Namibia).

• Famous Gorges:

  • Grand Canyon (USA): One of the most famous river gorges, carved by the Colorado River.

  • Kali Gandaki Gorge (Nepal): Considered the deepest gorge in the world, carved by the Kali Gandaki River.

  • Yangtze River Gorge (China): Known for its impressive scenic beauty.

  • Fish River Canyon (Namibia): One of the largest canyons in the world

• Lithology: The study of the physical characteristics, composition, and classification of rocks, including their mineral content and structure.

• Geomorphology: The scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them, such as erosion, weathering, and tectonic activity.

• Geology: The science that examines the Earth, its structure, materials, and processes, including the study of rocks, minerals, earthquakes, and volcanic activity.

• Coastal plain estuaries
• Tectonic estuaries
• Bar-built estuaries
• Fjord estuaries.

The outermost solid part of the Earth is the crust.

It is the Earth's outer skin, composed of solid rocks, and is divided into two types:

1. Continental crust – thicker and mostly made of granite.

2. Oceanic crust – thinner and mostly made of basalt.

The outermost solid part of the Earth is the crust.

It is the Earth's outer skin, composed of solid rocks, and is divided into two types:

1. Continental crust – thicker and mostly made of granite.

2. Oceanic crust – thinner and mostly made of basalt.