UGC NET/JRF EXAM, December-2019* Labour and Social Welfare

The fundamental principles of coordination have been enunciated by Mary Parker Follet focusing on the following aspects:

Direct control: Direct personal contact helps to coordinate activities of individuals. It helps in bringing about agreement on different managerial actions and decisions, duly clarifying possible misunderstandings among employees. Therefore, direct contact is considered as the most important principle of coordination.

Early start: Coordination is more effective in the early stages of planning and policy framing. Through coordination, employees are involved in these two processes and such participation enhances their sense of commitment to the organization. Therefore, direct contact should start right from the beginning so that all employees working in an organization are aware of the plans and programmes beforehand.

Reciprocity: This principle of coordination requires relating the human resource, materials, and the environment reciprocally with the organization. In a total situation, all factors are reciprocally related. For example, when A works with B and B in turn works with C and D, all of them are influenced by each other and, therefore, contribute to the situation in totality.

Continuity: Coordination is a continuous process. It never ends. This is because the ultimate aim of coordination is to achieve organizational goals and every organization operates in a dynamic environment.

Environmental forces, which set the competitive arenas for an organization, have to be aligned with the organizational goals, which keep on changing. Every manager, therefore, constantly works to achieve coordination. In this context, the principle of continuity is important for coordination.

Some more barriers to effective communication are explained below. For convenience of study, the barriers have been classified into three categoriessender-related barriers, situation-related barriers, and receiver-related barriers (see Fig.)

Different authors have defined different layers of culture (e.g. Hofstede, 1991; Trompenaars and Turner, 1997; Levinson & Asahi, 1995). For example. Hofstede's (1991) onion model separated culture into four layers: symbols, heroes, rituals and values.

Trompenaars and Turner (1997) also used an onion model, but divided the model into three complementary layers: explicit products, norms and values and assumptions about existence.

On the other hand, Hofstede (1991) and Levinson & Asahi (1995) have identified another level of culture, i.e., occupational or professional. Levinson & Asahi (1995) claim that occupational or professional culture's values and beliefs come from occupation and its training.

In order to give effect to the constitutional Directive under Article 39(d) and I.L.O. convention No. 100, the principle of "equal pay for equal work" was incorporated in the equal Remuneration Act, 1976.

The main aim of the Act is "to provide for the payment of equal remuneration to men and women workers and for the prevention of discrimination, on the ground of sex, against women in the matter of employment and for the matters connected therewith or incidental thereto".

Thus, the Act not only provide provision for payment of equal remuneration to men and women workers for the same work or work of similar nature but also ensure that there will be no discrimination against recruitment of women and provides for setting up of Advisory committees to promote employment opportunities for women.

Section 2(H) of the Act defines same work or similar nature to mean:

"work in respect of which the skill, effort and responsibility required are the same, when performed under similar working conditions, by a man or a woman and the differences if any between the skill, effort and responsibility required of a man and those required of a woman are not of practical importance in relation to the terms and conditions of employment".

Section 4 of the Act imposes duty upon employer to pay equal remuneration to men and women workers for the same work or work of similar nature. Clause 3 of the Section cast mandatory duty on employer, that the disparties existing before the commencement of this Act, has to be equal rate of remuneration to men and women workers.

Section 5 of the Act lays down that from the commencement of the act, the employer shall not make any discrimination against women except where the employment to women in such work is prohibited or restricted under any law while 'making recruitment for the same work or work of similar nature.

Section 6 provides for the appointment of Advisory Committee by the appropriate Government (consisting of not less than 10 members among which not less than one half shall be women) for providing increased employment opportunities for women.

The main function of the committee is to advise the Government regarding employment of women, the nature of work, hours of work, suitability of women for employment and the need for providing increased employment opportunities for women including part time employment, etc.

The Industrial Tribunal is a judicial body that is responsible for the adjudication of industrial disputes relating to any matter whether specified in the Second Schedule or the Third Schedule of the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947.

Matters related to the Second Schedule have already been covered under Labour Courts. Those related to the Third Schedule are as follows:

1. Wages, including the period and mode of payment;
2. Compensatory and other allowances;
3. Hours of work and rest intervals;
4. Leave with wages and holidays;
5 Bonus, profit sharing, provident fund and gratuity;
6. Shift working otherwise than in
accordance with standing orders;
7. Classification by grades;
8. Rules of discipline;
9. Rationalisation;
10. Retrenchment of workmen and closure of establishment; and
11. Any other matter that may be prescribed.

The social insurance approach is the largest single element in, and the foundation for the social welfare systems of, most industrial countries.

It grew out of voluntary insurance arrangements of the medieval European craft guilds, was institutionalized by European governments in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and soon spread from there to the whole world. Although there is no universally accepted definition, the social insurance approach is usually based on the following characteristics:

(a) Compulsory Participation: For most persons, participation in social insuranceprograms is specified in the law. In some programs, a small minority may be allowed to choose whether to participate.

(b) Government Sponsorship (and Regulation): Governments create and supervise social insurance programs, but do not necessarily manage them.

(c) Contributory Financing: Most (sometimes virtually all) of the resources needed to run the program are raised through explicit contributions (payroll taxes) collected from the employer and the employee. A worker's contribution is usually a fixed percentage of his or her wage income.

(d) Eligibility Derived from Contributions: Eligibility for benefits under social insurance programs rests, in part, on current or previous contributions by the individual, the individual's employer, or both. Frequently an individual's contributions also make family members eligible.

(e) Benefits Prescribed in Law: Uniform sets of entitling events and schedules of benefits are developed, announced, and applied to all participants. Administrators of the program have little discretion in determining who should get benefits or how much they should get.

(f) Benefits Not Directly Related to Contributions: Social insurance programs usually redistribute toward lower-wage workers or towards persons engaged in activities deemed to be socially desirable.

(g) Separate Accounting and Explicit LongRange Financing: Social insurance contributions usually are earmarked to pay social insurance benefits.

Governments typically keep separate accounts that permit comparisons of program receipts and program benefits, though they may also present financial information that integrates the social insurance programs with other government operations.

Governments also typically develop an explicit plan showing that projected revenues are sufficient to finance projected expenditures for several years into the future.

The Mines Act, 1952, contains provisions for measures relating to the health, safety and welfare of persons employed in the coal and oil mines. It provides the following provisions for health and safety of mine workers:

1. Drinking water
2. Conservancy
3. Medical appliances
4. Working hours
5. Notice about accidents
6. Notice of certain diseases.

Some of the important provisions of the Act regarding employment, health and safety are:

• The minimum age for employment is 18 years.
• Compulsory weekly day of rest.
• Limited hours of work in a week.
• Restriction on employment of women below ground.
• Provision of drinking water, first aid,
• ambulance and other medical facilities.
• Payment of overtime wages and leave with wages.
• Constitution of tripartite committees in place of mining board.