UGC NET/JRF EXAM, Mass Communication & Journalism, October-2022*

Although type I and type II errors can never be avoided entirely, the investigator can reduce their likelihood by increasing the sample size (the larger the sample, the lesser is the likelihood that it will differ substantially from the population).

Their main offices are located in Noida, Uttar Pradesh. The service reports news, views and analysis from the subcontinent about the country, across a wide range of subjects, to subscribers via the Internet.

While IANS is primarily known as a wire service in English and Hindi, it also has a publishing division that currently produces newspapers and periodicals for other clients in the media industry. IANS also operates a mobile news service.

PTI was registered in 1947 and started functioning in 1949. Today, after 75 years of its service, PTI can well and truly take priie in the legacy of its work, and in its contribution towards the building of a free and fair Press in India.

On its golden jubilee in 1999, President K R Narayanan said "We got independence in August 1947. But independence in news and information we got only with the establishment of PTI in 1949. That is the significance of PTI."

The Germany Hitler's Nazi used film industry for Propaganda and they produced lots of movies about their achievements which made a great impact in Germans mind.

Later the United States also used its own Hollywood and produced films like "Its Happened one night", "It's a wonderful life" and Mr. Smith goes to Washington" to portrait Germany as Evil force which also made impact in Americans Mind.

Here media audience accepts the messages directly without any rejection. The media (magic gun) fired the message directly into audience head without their own knowledge.

The message cause the instant reaction from the audience mind without any hesitation is called "Magic Bullet Theory". The media (needle) injects the message into audience mind and it cause changes in audience behaviour and psyche towards the message.

Audience are passive and they can't resist the media message is called "Hypodermic Needle Theory". Both theories are deals with impact of media messages in audience mind and how audience react towards the message without any hesitation.

Devotees believe that by bathing in the Ganges one is freed from sins liberating her/him from the cycle of birth and death. Millions of people reach the place without any invitation. The congregation includes ascetics, saints, sadhus, aspirantskalpavasis and visitors.

The festival is held at Allahabad, Haridwar, Ujjain and Nasik every four years by rotation and is attended by millions of people irrespective of caste, creed or gender.

Its primary bearers, however, belong to akhadas and ashrams, religious organizations, or are individuals living on alms. Kumbh Mela plays a central spiritual role in the country, exerting a mesmeric influence on ordinary Indians.

The event encapsulates the science of astronomy, astrology, spirituality, ritualistic traditions, and social and cultural customs and practices, making it extremely rich in knowledge.

As it is held in four different cities in India, it involves different social and cultural activities, making this a culturally diverse festival.

Knowledge and skills related to the tradition are transmitted through ancient religious manuscripts, oral traditions, historical travelogues and texts produced by eminent historians.

However, the teacher-student relationship of the sadhus in the ashrams and akhadas remains the most important method of imparting and safeguarding knowledge and skills relating to Kumbh Mela.

Specifically, the hypothesis predicts that "as the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, segments of the population with higher socioeconomic status tend to acquire this information at a faster rate than the lower status segments,

so that the gap in knowledge between these segments tends to increase rather than decrease". Phillip J. Tichenor, then Associate Professor of Journalism and Mass Communication, George A. Donohue, Professor of Sociology, and Clarice N. Olien,

Instructor in Sociology - three University of Minnesota researchers first proposed the knowledge gap hypothesis in 1970.

UGT is an audience-centred approach to understanding mass communication. Diverging from other media effect theories that question "what do media do to people?", UGT instead focuses on" what do people do with media?".

It postulates that media is a highly available product and the audiences are the consumers of the same product. This communication theory is positivistic in its approach, based in the socio-psychological communication tradition, and focuses on communication at the mass media scale.

The driving question of UGT is: Why do people use media and what do they use them for? UGT discusses how users deliberately choose media that will satisfy given needs and allow one to enhance knowledge, relaxation, social interactions/companionship, diversion, or escape.

UGT assumes that audience members are not passive consumers of media. Rather, the audience has power over their media consumption and assumes an active role in interpreting and integrating media into their own lives.

Unlike other theoretical perspectives, UGT holds that audiences are responsible for choosing media to meet their desires and needs to achieve gratification. This theory would then imply that the media compete against other information sources for viewers' gratification.

UGT has a heuristic value today because it gives communication scholars a "perspective through which a number of ideas and theories about media choice, consumption, and even impact can be viewed".