UGC NET/JRF EXAM, Mass Communication & Journalism,December-2019*

This scaling method, developed by Osgood and his associates (Osgood et al., 1957), is an attempt to measure the psychological meanings of an object to an individual.

It is based on the proposition that an object can have several dimensions of connotative meanings, which can be located in multidimensional property space, in this case called semantic space, for example, both direction and intensity.

One of the ways this is done is requiring the intervals respondent to rate assuming equal on a set of bipolar adjectives (like extremely clear-extremely ambiguous; extremely strong-extremely weak, and so forth) and then arranging integer values to these intervals.

Averages of these scores for two groups can be compared to get a semantic differential profile. Some of the major uses have been to compare company ‘images' and brands, determine attitudinal characteristics of consumers, and analyse the effectiveness of promotional activities.

or its officers in the efficient and effective discharge of their functions and duties or which has a tendency, directly or indirectly, to lower the dignity or prestige of the House, its committees or its members.

There is no statuary definition of "Contempt" of House. General principles governing the concept of contempt may, however, be gathered from journals and precedents.

They will serve as declarations of the law of the House. May gives a broad definition of Contempt of House as “...... any act or omission which obstructs or impedes either House of Parliament in the performance of its functions,

or which obstructs or impedes any member or officer of such House in the discharge of his duty, or which has a tendency, directly or indirectly, to produce such results may be treated as a contempt even though there is no precedent of the offence".

By long usage, offences in the nature of contempt have been styled "Breaches of Privileges". The later expression strictly should cover violation of or assault on Parliamentary privileges.

Indeed a number of contempt cases arise out of disregard of the privileges of members of the House of Legislature, or of the House collectively.

Mere encroachments on the rights of the House by obstruction and interference give rise to contempt which is not breach of privileges. So we may state the Breach of Privilege is an important aspect of the generic term "Contempt of House".

'Contempt' is any conduct which is disorderly, contumacious or disrespectful to the house, in the presence of the House or its committee whether indulges by the members, parties' witnesses or strangers will be contempt of House.

What is contempt is to be decided by the House. It can deem any act, language, slander or libel to constitute contempt and its judgements is final.

The principle underlying appears to be the same as in the case of contempt of the court of justice. The contempt may lie in any act or omission or any speech or publication impeding or obstructing House or its member in the performance of their function.

Actual obstruction is not necessary. A tendency, directly or indirectly, to produce such a result is enough. The House is the sole judge to determine what a contumacious act is.

The power of House to punish for contempt is a general power alike to that by superior courts of law and is not restricted to cases of breach of privilege.

Difference between Privilege and Contempt of the House: The difference between breach of privilege and contempt of the House is very narrow. A breach of privilege may amount to contempt of the House.

Likewise, contempt of the House may include a breach of privilege also. Contempt of the House, however, has wider implications. There may be a contempt of the House without specifically committing a breach of privilege.

The word contempt is not amendable to strict delimitation or definition. The sole authority to decide whether a contempt has been committed or not is the concerned House

it self. It is not possible to enumerate every act which might constitute a contempt of the House. However, some typical cases of breach of privilege and contempt are described below:

1. Misconduct in presence of the House or committees thereof;
2. Disobedience to orders of the House or its committee;
3. Presenting False, Forged or Fabricated Documents to the House or Committees;
4. Tampering with Documents presented to the House or its Committees;
5. Speeches or Writing Reflecting on the House, its Committees or Members;
6. Publication of False or Distorted Report of Debates;
7. Publication of Expunged proceeding;
8. Publication of proceedings of secret sessions;
9. Premature Publication of Proceedings, Evidence or Report of a Parliamentary Committee of the House;
10. Reflection on the Report of the Parliamentary Committee. Circulation of Petitions before presentation;
11. Premature Publication of various other matters connected with the business of the House;
12. Obstructing Members in the discharge of their duties;
13. Attempts by improper means to influence members in their parliamentary conduct;
14. Intimation of Members;
15. Obstructing Officers of the House;
16. Refusal of Civil Officers of the Government to assist Officers of House when called upon to do so;
17. Molestation of Officers of the House;
18. Obstructions and Molestation of witnesses and
19. Tempering with witnesses.

Copy, in this case a noun, refers to material (such as handwritten or typewritten pages) to be first corrected and improved upon, and then composed (as in typesetting) for printing.

A person who performs the task of copy-editing is called a sub-editor. The sub-editor's job may be summarized in the 5 Cs: To make the copy clear, correct, concise, comprehensible, and consistent.

Copyediting or sub-editing typically means correcting spelling, punctuation, grammatical and semantic errors; ensuring the typescript adheres to the newspaper's own style;

adding headlines, sub headlines, information graphics, blurbs and so on. These elements must be taken care of before the typesetter can prepare a final proof copy.

The sub-editor is also expected to ensure the text flows, i.e., reads well. The job of a sub-editor is to produce copy that makes sense and is fair and accurate, and that it will cause no legal problems for the publisher or editor.

Newspaper sub-editors are sometimes responsible for choosing which news agency copy the newspaper will use, and for rewriting it according to their house style.

In many cases, a sub-editor will be the only person other than the reporter to read an entire text of news stories before publication.

Newspaper editors often regard their sub-editors as their newspaper's last line of defense. A sub-editor may abridge or shorten text, which is also called "cutting" or "trimming.

" This means reducing the length of a news story or article, either to fit publishing limits, or to improve the material.

This may involve simply omitting parts of the text, but sometimes it is necessary to rewrite parts of the news story or the entire news story to accommodate missing details. Some abridged texts are only slightly shorter, but others may be reduced dramatically.

For McQuail (1997): “Audiences will become more and more fragmented and will lose their national, local, or cultural identity”.

However, the change brought by electronic media was seen as reinforcing surveillance and control. McQuail (1997) identified four changes about the audience:

1. larger supply and easier and cheaper reach with cable and satellite,
2. opportunities for recording and wider choice thus making the audience experience less homogenous,
3. transnationalization and global reach,
4. wide interactivity

This fourth change is a result of the growing interactivity found in media due to computerization. The one-way model of transmission has become a two-way or even multiple-way model. The user of the media now has more control.

This change is going in the opposite direction of what one used to witness in the history of media audiences. It seems that there is equilibrium in the sender-receiver power relationship.

However, the mass audience becomes fragmented with the individualization of uses (McQuail, 1997). According to McQuail (1997), it is not only the technological changes that create audiences but also changes in society:

“the possibility of entering an interactive utopia is also as much dependent on social factors as on technological possibilities.”

Strike is about the repression of a group of factory workers involved in an industrial dispute, which ends with the massacre of the strikers and their families by government forces.

The six-part structure of strike-
1. 'All Quiet at the Factory',
2. 'The Immediate Cause of Strike',
3. 'The Factory Stands Idle',
4. 'The Strike is Protracted',
5. 'Engineering a Massacre',
6. 'Slaughter'-is due in part to Eisenstein's theatrical background, but it would also have been vital for the film to be contained on single reels as many cinemas had only one projector.

Brevity is a great virtue in journalism appreciated by readers and editors alike. It is telling a story, as it should be, without beating around the bush. It saves time and space and wins applause when consummated to perfection.