UGC NET/JRF EXAM, Mass Communication & Journalism,December-2019*

А demand characteristic can manifest in a number of different ways if the researcher is not careful when designing and proceeding with a study.

In communication and social research, demand characteristics can create bias in an experiment due to the subject becoming aware of the purpose of the experimental design and, thus, potentially bias or invalidate the outcomes of the experiment.

The presence of demand characteristics within an experiment can introduce challenges for researchers, because demand characteristics can call into question the internal and external validity of the experimental findings.

Aspect ratio: A comparison of the width to the height of the usable (or visible) image portion of a film or video frame expressed as a numeric value or calculated ratio, such as 16 x 9, 1.33 to 1, or 1.85:1.

Fig. The interior rectangle shows an aspect ratio of 16: 9, while the exterior rectangle shows an aspect ratio of 4: 3.

Aspect ratios are generally given in terms of the projected or viewed image, rather than in terms of the image recorded by the camera.

The image recorded on film by the camera may be of a different aspect ratio than the desired projection or broadcast image typically it is more square.

When this is the case, either the projector is masked off with a soft matte so that the resulting image on screen is of the appropriate aspect ratio or a hard matte is added during production of the release prints, possibly to the interpositive or internegative.

Common presentation aspect ratios include:

• 1.19:1-Movietone frame (silent film frame reduced in width to allow for an optical soundtrack).

• 1.25:1—Standard LCD computer monitor; still photographic prints (4 × 5 or 8 × 10 in a landscape orientation)

• 1.33:1—Silent film (aspect ratios varied greatly during the early Silent Era (c. 1890), but eventually settled on 1.33); full frame 35 mm (without space for a soundtrack); 8 mm; standard television or CRT computer monitor (where it is more commonly expressed as 4 : 3 or 4 × 3).

• 1.37:1—Academy aperture for 35 mm (Movietone frame adjusted to provide a more rectangular image while still allowing room for an optical soundtrack); 16 mm.

• 1.43:1—IMAX (often referred to as 15/70 indicating that the frame runs for 15 perforations on 70 mm film, as opposed to the standard 4 perforations for a full frame 35 mm image).

• 1.60:1—Widescreen computer monitor.

• 1.62:1—The Golden Ratio (rounded from 1.6180339887).

• 1.66:1—Continental European standard theatrical aspect ratio (considered widescreen in comparison to Academy aperture); Super-16—may be rounded to 1.67.

• 1.78:1—Widescreen television (where it is more commonly expressed as 16:9 or 16 × 9).

• 1.85:1—U.S. and U.K. standard theatrical aspect ratio (considered widescreen in comparison to Academy aperture); normal human vision (unlike motion picture and television aspect ratios, which are based on a rectangular image, human vision is roughly shaped like an ellipse with the aspect ratio measured along its widest and tallest dimensions).

• 2.00:1—VistaVision and Magnafilm.

• 2.13:1—Grandeur.

• 2.20:1—Non-anamorphic (spherical) 70 mm.

• 2.35:1—Non-anamorphic (spherical) 35 mm widescreen; anamorphic 35 mm widescreen prior to c. 1970; CinemaScope; Panavision.

• 2.39:1—Anamorphic 35 mm widescreen since c. 1970—may still be referred to as 2.35 for historical reasons or may be rounded to 2.40.

• 2.59:1—Cinerama (using three 35 mm film prints projected on the same screen).

• 2.75:1—Anamorphic 70 mm.

• 3.66:1—Magirama.

The external validity of a study can be severely affected by the interaction in an analysis of variables such as subject selection, instrumentation, and experimental conditions.

A study that lacks external validity cannot be projected to other situations. The study is only valid for the sample tested. Most procedures to guard against external invalidity relate to sample selection. Here, three considerations must be taken into account:

1. Use random samples.
2. Use heterogeneous samples and replicate the study several times.
3. Select a sample that is representative of the group to which the results will be generalized.

Teasers, or mystery ads as they are sometimes called, are also used by marketers to draw attention to upcoming advertising campaigns and generate interest and publicity for them.

Teaser campaigns can generate interest in a new product, but advertisers must be careful not to extend them too long or they will lose their effectiveness.

Considering the need for having a national level plan for promoting e-governance and increasing public accessibility of all government services, the Government of India approved National e-Governance Plan in May 2006.

The objective of this multi-stakeholder plan is to transform traditional processes and service delivery mechanisms, and create an environment that is citizen-centric with rights based approach to governance while making interaction with government easier, effective and transparent.

It has expanded its reach to all strata of society especially at the grassroots. Plan's endeavor has been to improve the quality of life, by facilitating socio-economic development across the nation by giving access to crucial services and information in particular to the underserved population.

The main elements of the plan are: common support infrastructure comprising State Wide Area Networks, State Data Centres, Common Service Centres and Electronic Service Delivery Gateways; suitable arrangements for monitoring and coordinating the implementation of plan;

centralized initiative with decentralized implementation; public private partnerships; adoption of unique identification codes for citizens, businesses and property as integrative elements; programme approach at national and state levels;

facilitator role of Department of Electronics and Information Technology; and ownership of ministries in terms of mission mode projects. National e-Governance Plan is implemented through mission mode projects.

Each mission mode project is an individual project which directs attention on any one aspect of egovernance. The plan has centre, state and integrated mission mode projects.

Table : Mission Mode Projects

A theory appears in abstract, general terms and generates more specific hypotheses (testable propositions)" describes theory as "any conceptual representation or explanation of a phenomenon."

Thus, two of the most important qualities of theories are that they offer explanations of particular phenomena and allow researchers to generate hypotheses.

The testing of hypotheses, in turn, allows researchers to further refine and extend theories. Theories can also be developed and refined through grounded theoretical approaches.