UGC NET/JRF EXAM, Politics Including International Relations and Studies SEPTEMBER – 2024 – (PAPER-II)

The Maastricht Treaty, formally known as the Treaty on European Union, was signed in 1992 and came into force on 1st November 1993.

• It marked a significant step in the process of European integration, officially creating the European Union (EU).

• The treaty introduced three main pillars: the European Communities, Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and Justice and Home Affairs (JHA).

• It also laid the groundwork for the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), including provisions that would eventually lead to the creation of the Euro.

• Moreover, it strengthened the powers of the European Parliament and expanded EU competencies into new areas like education, health, and environment.

The Bandung Conference, also known as the Afro-Asian Summit, was held from 18–24 April 1955 in Bandung, Indonesia.

• It was attended by representatives from 29 Asian and African countries, many of which had recently gained independence.

• The summit was a critical moment in the emergence of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), promoting solidarity among developing nations, opposition to colonialism, and peaceful coexistence.

• Prominent leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru (India), Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt), Sukarno (Indonesia), and Zhou Enlai (China) played vital roles in the event.

• It also emphasized cultural cooperation, economic development, and political self-determination.

When Nehru decided to make Goa part of India by throwing out Portuguese colonialists, the western world instead of supporting democratic Nehru, condemned him and supported Portuguese dictator Salazar.

Regarding this, American President J.F. Kennedy stated about India that, “You spend the last fifteen years preaching morality to us, and then you go ahead and act the way any normal country would behave…People are saying, the preacher has been caught coming out of the brothel.”

The “Act East Policy” was launched by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2014, as an upgrade to the earlier “Look East Policy” initiated in the 1990s.

• The Act East Policy emphasizes economic, strategic, and cultural relations with the Southeast and East Asian countries.

• Its goals include strengthening trade ties, enhancing connectivity, improving diplomatic relations, and ensuring strategic balance in the Indo-Pacific region, especially in the context of China’s growing influence.

• This policy is actively pursued through forums such as ASEAN, East Asia Summit, and BIMSTEC.

Social Theory of International Politics” is a landmark book authored by Alexander Wendt and published in 1999.

• In this book, Wendt introduces a constructivist approach to International Relations (IR), arguing that the international system is socially constructed rather than inherently anarchic.

• He critiques both realist and liberal theories by emphasizing that state identities and interests are not fixed, but shaped by historical, social, and intersubjective processes.

• Wendt’s famous assertion, “Anarchy is what states make of it,” challenges the deterministic view of power politics and proposes a more dynamic understanding of international interactions.

The book “The Tragedy of Great Power Politics” was written by John J. Mearsheimer and published in 2001.

• Mearsheimer is a leading proponent of the Offensive Realism school in International Relations.

• In the book; he argues that the international system is anarchic, and great powers are inherently driven to maximize their share of world power, which inevitably leads to conflict.

• He contends that the tragedy lies in the fact that even peace-seeking states are forced to behave aggressively due to systemic pressures.

• The book draws heavily from historical cases to illustrate the behavior of great powers in an anarchic world order.

Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister, visited China in October 1954.

• This was a landmark diplomatic visit and was undertaken during a phase of Indo-Chinese goodwill, often referred to as the “Hindi-Chini Bhai-Bhai” period.

• The visit occurred shortly after the signing of the Panchsheel Agreement (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence) in the same year between India and China.

• Nehru’s visit aimed to strengthen bilateral ties and was seen as a gesture of Asian solidarity and non-alignment during the early Cold War years.

• However, the spirit of this visit deteriorated by the end of the decade, culminating in the 1962 India-China War.

Osama bin Laden, the mastermind behind the 9/11 attacks, was killed by U.S. Navy SEALs on 2nd May 2011 in Abbottabad, Pakistan.

• The operation was authorized by President Barack Obama and conducted by SEAL Team Six in a covert night raid.

The operation was carried out without informing Pakistani authorities and lasted around 40 minutes.

• Bin Laden’s death was a significant moment in the Global War on Terror and was widely covered globally.

• His body was buried at sea to prevent any symbolic shrine from being created.

The quote — “The West has an interest in maintaining peace in Europe. It therefore has an interest in maintaining the Cold War Order and hence an interest in the continuation of the Cold War confrontation, developments that threaten to end it, are dangerous” — is attributed to John J. Mearsheimer.

• This reflects his realist interpretation of global politics, where major powers seek stability through balance, even if it means prolonging a state of rivalry.

• He argued that the Cold War structure, though tense, provided a predictable and stable international system.

• Any disruption to this balance could lead to unforeseen chaos or instability, particularly in Europe where Cold War boundaries and alliances maintained peace.