UGC-NET (NTA) Human Rights and Duties, FEBRUARY-2023

Rostow's stages of economic growth are a linear theory of development, suggesting that societies move through a consistent sequence of stages:
(a) Traditional Stage: At this stage, societies are agrarian and characterized by limited technology and stagnant productivity.
(e) Pre-conditions for Take Off Stage: There's a transition where new ideas begin to spread, leading to a desire for change and the establishment of the groundwork for economic growth.
(d) Take Off Stage: The economy experiences a growth spurt, where new industries grow rapidly and productivity increases.
(c) Maturity Stage: This stage sees diversification of the economy, with new sectors emerging.
(b) Mass Consumption Stage: At this final stage, economic development is widespread, and the society reaches a point where the standards of living rise and mass consumption patterns emerge.

The International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) enumerates a variety of rights:
(c) Equal right of men and women is established under Article 3.
(e) Right to work is protected under Article 6.
(b) Social Security falls under Article 9.
(a) Education is discussed in Articles 13 and 14.
(d) Right to take part in cultural life is established in Article 15.

Here's the order of the mentioned UN initiatives based on their adoption:
(d) Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women was established first in 1994, focusing on human rights violations affecting women.
(a) Women Watch was created in 1997 as an inter-agency project to address women's issues.
(c) Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and children was established in 2004 to focus on human rights dimensions of the victims of human trafficking.
(b) U.N. Women was established in 2010, consolidating various UN bodies focusing on gender equality and women's empowerment into one entity.

The order of the cases based on their year of decision is:
(c) Shankari Prasad: The first case in 1951 that upheld Parliament's power to amend all parts of the Constitution.
(a) Sajjan Singh: This 1965 case also upheld the Parliament's power to amend the Constitution.
(b) Indira Nehru Gandhi: In 1975, this case upheld the validity of the constitutional amendments related to elections.
(e) M. Nagraj: This 2006 case upheld the 77th, 81st, 82nd, and 85th Amendments but stated that the state has to justify reservations each time they're implemented.
(d) Janhit Abhiyan: The exact date isn't specified here, but presumably, it's the latest among the mentioned cases.

The World Bank comprises five international organizations that provide financial and technical assistance to developing countries. Here's the order of establishment:
(a) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development: Founded in 1944, it was the original institution of the World Bank Group, providing financial and technical assistance for the post-war reconstruction of Europe.
(c) International Finance Association: Created in 1956, its purpose is to foster economic growth in the poorest nations by providing financial products and policy advice.
(b) International Development Corporation: Established in 1960, it offers low or zero-interest loans and grants to the world's poorest countries. (d) Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency: Founded in 1988, it encourages foreign investment in developing countries by offering insurance against non-commercial risks.

The Indian Constitution is known for its comprehensive nature and the balanced way it brings about rigidity and flexibility. The term "variable rigidity" or "flexible rigidity" points to the manner in which some parts of the Constitution are easily amendable (flexible), while others require a more rigorous procedure (rigid).
This bifurcation ensures that the essential parts of the Constitution remain intact, while allowing necessary changes with time. Thus, the Reason (R) aptly explains the inherent adaptability highlighted in the Assertion (A).

The Assertion (A) is undeniably true. Rule of law is one of the bedrocks of the Indian Constitution. This principle denotes the supremacy of law, which means that everyone is equal in the eyes of the law. The Reason (R) highlights two components:
'equality before law' and the judiciary's role. While both are accurate statements about the Constitution, they don't entirely encompass the broad principle of rule of law.
The rule of law goes beyond just equality and judiciary's role; it's about the predictability, accountability, and fairness of the legal system as a whole.

The Human Rights Council (HRC) is indeed a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly. It replaced the UN Commission on Human Rights, which was under ECOSOC.
The significant shift from ECOSOC to the General Assembly emphasizes the heightened importance given to human rights issues on the global stage. The Reason (R) is directly tied to the Assertion (A), providing a structural explanation for the HRC's placement under the General Assembly.

Statement I is accurate. While the proclamation of emergency is customarily notified by publication in the Official Gazette, this isn't a strict necessity. The Indian Constitution doesn't mandate this publication. However, Statement II is slightly off.
While the President can proclaim an emergency under Article 352 due to war, external aggression, or armed rebellion, it is not just after the occurrence. It can be proclaimed even when there's an imminent threat, and thus it's not strictly post-facto.

Statement I is a widely accepted legal maxim in India, emphasizing that unless there are weighty reasons, personal liberty shouldn't be compromised, thus the presumption of granting bail. It underscores the principle that innocence is presumed until proven guilty.
Statement II accurately points to Section 437 of the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973, which deals with the conditions and prerequisites for granting bail in cases of non-bailable offences.