UGC-NET (NTA) Human Rights and Duties, JUNE-2025

In this landmark constitutional judgment, the Supreme Court observed that Fundamental Rights are the modern name for what have historically been known as natural rights.
The Court emphasised that these rights originate from the inherent dignity of individuals rather than being gifts of the state.
In Golak Nath, the Court held that Parliament could not amend Fundamental Rights under Article 368, reinforcing their elevated and natural-law character. This case is significant because it linked the Indian Fundamental Rights directly with the philosophical idea of natural rights, showing their centrality in a democratic constitutional order.

Article 39A of the Constitution of India directs the State to provide free legal aid to ensure equal justice for all, especially for undertrial prisoners and economically weaker sections. This Article was inserted by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976, and forms part of the Directive Principles of State Policy.
It ensures that no person is denied access to justice due to economic or social disability. Under this Article, the state is obligated to provide legal assistance at the pre-trial, trial, and appellate stages, forming the basis for institutions like the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 and free legal aid schemes.

Article 42 directs the State to make provisions for securing just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief. It forms part of the Directive Principles of State Policy and aims to protect working women and labourers from exploitation.
This Article is the constitutional foundation for laws like the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 and various labour welfare measures concerning workplace safety, maternity leave, and conditions of work.
The purpose of Article 42 is to ensure that the workforce, especially women, is supported with humane working environments and maternity protection essential for social and economic justice.

In this case, the Supreme Court elaborated upon the concept of "social justice" under Article 38 of the Constitution. The Court held that social justice is a dynamic ideal aiming to eliminate inequality and provide fairness to disadvantaged groups.
The judgment stressed that Article 38 obligates the State to create conditions where social, economic, and political justice prevail. The Court interpreted social justice broadly, explaining that the rights of contract workers, labourers, and disadvantaged communities must be protected to realise the objectives of a welfare state.
This judgment expanded the meaning of Article 38 into a living constitutional principle.

Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter deals with the pacific settlement of disputes. It provides a framework for resolving international conflicts through peaceful methods such as negotiation, mediation, arbitration, conciliation, judicial settlement, and diplomacy. Articles 33 to 38 fall under this Chapter.
The purpose of Chapter VI is to prevent the escalation of disputes into armed conflict and to encourage states to resort to peaceful mechanisms before involving the Security Council. It forms the legal basis for UN peacekeeping and preventive diplomacy efforts.

The Specialized Agencies of the United Nations-such as WHO, UNESCO, ILO, FAO, IMF, and World Bank-are coordinated by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) under Articles 57 and 63 of the UN Charter. ECOSOC establishes formal agreements with these agencies, supervises their reports, and ensures coordination of their economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related activities.
It acts as the central platform for policy dialogue and harmonisation among 15 UN specialised agencies, regional commissions, and various functional bodies.

The International Labour Organization (ILO) is the only UN Specialized Agency with a tripartite structure, meaning its decision-making bodies include three groups: governments, employers, and workers. This unique structure, established in 1919, ensures that labour standards are framed through the joint participation of all stakeholders.
The ILO's Governing Body and International Labour Conference both operate through this tripartite representation, making it distinct from agencies like WHO, UNESCO, or UNICEF, which follow intergovernmental structures.

The 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002 added Clause (k) to Article 51A, making it a Fundamental Duty of every parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to their child aged 6 to 14 years.
This amendment also inserted Article 21A, giving the Right to Education as a Fundamental Right, and modified Article 45 to provide early childhood care for children below six years.
Clause (k) reflects the national responsibility to ensure universal education and strengthen India's commitment toward literacy and human development.

The report titled "The State of the World's Human Rights (April 2025)" is published by Amnesty International, one of the world's leading global human rights NGOs.
This annual report assesses human rights conditions across more than 150 countries, documenting issues such as freedom of expression, arbitrary detention, torture, discrimination, and violations during conflicts.
Amnesty International has been publishing such global assessments for decades, making it one of the most authoritative sources on worldwide human rights monitoring.

The global development network of the United Nations is led by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). UNDP operates in over 170 countries and focuses on poverty eradication, democratic governance, climate action, resilience building, and sustainable development.
It coordinates international development assistance, supports Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and works closely with national governments.
As the UN's principal development agency, UNDP leads the global development agenda through research, funding support, policy advice, and programme implementation.